32fab2e4-162f-4a20-b2d7-c8a25c48332220231003085951613wseas:wseasmdt@crossref.orgMDT DepositEARTH SCIENCES AND HUMAN CONSTRUCTIONS2944-90062944-915410.37394/232024https://wseas.com/journals/eshc/312023312023310.37394/232024.2022.3https://wseas.com/journals/eshc/2023.phpKuldeepParetaWater Resource Department, DHI (India) Water & Environment Pvt Ltd., New Delhi. INDIAUpasanaParetaDepartment of Computer Applications, Omaksh Consulting Pvt Ltd, Greater Noida, UP. INDIAThis research paper comprehensively examines the climate and geomorphological features of Cherrapunji and Mawsynram, aiming to understand the factors and environmental implications of their extreme precipitation. The study investigates climatic patterns, identifies geomorphological characteristics, and explores the factors influencing the occurrence of heavy rainfall in these areas, and displays unique rainfall patterns with high precipitation levels and notable spatio-temporal variation influenced by topographic interactions. Trend analysis reveals stable rainfall conditions over the past 122 years. The shift of the world's wettest place from Cherrapunji to Mawsynram in recent decades have been attributed to various factors such as geographical location, geomorphology-local topography, LULC-human influence, rain shadow effect, and orographic lifting effects. Cherrapunji recorded maximum rainfall of 24.55 thousand mm, while Mawsynram received 26 thousand mm of rainfall in the last century. The analysis of long-term rainfall data indicates distinct dry and wet seasons, with recent trends (2000-2020) suggesting a decline in rainfall for both locations. Furthermore, extreme value analysis techniques are employed to estimate maximum rainfall for different return periods, offering insights into extreme rainfall events. The return period of one day's highest rainfall of 1340.82 mm is about 100 years. The findings contribute to our understanding of climate change impacts, support sustainable development practices, and inform strategies for water resource management and erosion mitigation in similar geographic contexts. This research enhances our knowledge of these unique regions and their significance within the broader context of global climate systems.1032023103202356756https://wseas.com/journals/eshc/2023/a12eshc-003(2023).pdf10.37394/232024.2023.3.6https://wseas.com/journals/eshc/2023/a12eshc-003(2023).pdf10.1007/s11069-006-9084-zMurata, F., Hayashi, T., Matsumoto, J., & Asada, H. Rainfall on the Meghalaya plateau in northeastern India - one of the rainiest places in the world. Natural Hazards, vol. 42, 2007, pp. 391-399. 10.1002/esp.4062Naylor, L. A., Spencer, T., Lane, S. N., Darby, S. E., Magilligan, F. J., Macklin, M. G., & Möller, I. Stormy geomorphology: Geomorphic contributions in an age of climate extremes. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, vol. 42, 2017, pp. 166-190. 10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.01.040Soja, R., & Starkel, L. Extreme Rainfalls in Eastern Himalaya and Southern Slope of Meghalaya Plateau and Their Geomorphic Impacts. Geomorphology, vol. 84, no. 3, 2006, pp. 10-16. Goswami, B., Choudhury, P. R., & Sarma, A. K. Variability and trends of rainfall in the wettest part of India: A case study of Cherrapunji. Atmospheric Research, vol. 168, 2016, pp. 146-161. 10.1007/s00704-014-1224-xProkop, P., & Walanus, A. Variation in the Orographic Extreme Rain Events over the Meghalaya Hills in Northeast India in the Two Halves of the Twentieth Century. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, vol. 121, 2015, pp. 389-399. Hofer, T. What are the impacts of deforestation in the Himalayas on flooding in the lowlands? Rethinking an old paradigm. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 1997, 0982-B2 (Revised), pp. 1-13. 10.1007/s11069-007-9125-2Murata, F., Terao, T., Hayashi, T., Asada, H., & Matsumoto, J. Relationship between atmospheric conditions at Dhaka, Bangladesh, and rainfall at Cherrapunjee, India. Natural Hazards, vol. 44, 2008, pp. 399-410. Jennings, A. H. Monthly Weather Review, American Meteorological Society. vol. 78, no. 1, 1950. 10.1175/2010jhm1311.1Romatschke, U., & Houze, R. A. Jr. Characteristics of Precipitating Convective Systems in the Pre-Monsoon Season of South Asia. Journal of Hydrometeorology, vol. 12, 2011, pp. 157-180. 10.1016/j.epsl.2010.01.038Breitenbach, S. F. M., et al. Strong influence of water vapor source dynamics on stable isotopes in precipitation observed in Southern Meghalaya, NE India. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 292, 2010, pp. 212-220. Blanford, H. F. Description of a Rain-gauge, lately established at Cherrapunji, in the Khasi Hills, Bengal. Calcutta: Government of India, 1886. Sarma, S., Goswami, R., & Hazarika, S. Spatial and Temporal Variations of Rainfall Patterns in Cherrapunji, Meghalaya, India. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, vol. 124, no. 1-2, 2016, pp. 311-322. Saha, A., Ghosh, A., & Ghosh, S. HydroClimatic Variability of Cherrapunji, Meghalaya, India, during 1949-2016. Journal of Earth System Science, vol. 128, no. 1, 2019, p. 12. Das, A., Bhattacharjee, J., & Das, S. Climatic analysis of Cherrapunji, Meghalaya: A study of precipitation and temperature patterns. International Journal of Climatology, vol. 42, no. S1, 2022, pp. E2193-E2205. Das, J. C. The heavy rainfalls at Cherrapunji and Mawsynram in Assam. Meteorological Magazine, vol. 80, no. 951, 1951, pp. 263-267. Bhattacharjee, J., Das, A., & Das, S. Hydrometeorological analysis of Cherrapunji, India: A case study of world's wettest place. Journal of Water and Climate Change, vol. 8, no. 2, 2017, pp. 332-346. Chakraborty, S., & Pradhan, S. Climate change and agriculture in the eastern Himalayas: An empirical study in Cherrapunji, India. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, vol. 139, no. 3-4, 2020, pp. 1093-1107. Das, P. K. The pattern of diurnal variation of rainfall at Cherrapunji (Assam) and its physical explanation. Indian Journal of Meteorology and Geophysics, vol. 19, no. 1, 1968, pp. 37- 44. Singh, R., Das, S., & Mahanta, C. Analysis of Spatio-Temporal Variation of Rainfall in Mawsynram, Meghalaya, India. Environmental Processes, vol. 6, no. 4, 2019, pp. 871-883. Ramaswamy, C. Circulation in the North-East Monsoon over the Eastern Himalayas and Bengal Plains. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences - Section A, vol. 75, no. 3, 1972, pp. 125-138. 10.54302/mausam.v65i1.851Pai, D. S., Sridhar, L., Rajeevan, M., Sreejith, O. P., Satbhai, N. S., & Mukhopadhyay, B. Development of a New High Spatial Resolution (0.25° × 0.25°) Long-Period (1901- 2010) Daily Gridded Rainfall Data Set over India and Its Comparison with Existing Data Sets over the Region. Mausam, vol. 65, 2014, pp. 1-18. Phukan, S., & Borah, M. Spatial and Temporal Analysis of Rainfall Pattern in Mawsynram and Cherrapunji Region of Meghalaya, India. Modeling Earth Systems and Environment, vol. 4, no. 3, 2018, pp. 893-904. 10.1029/2008jd010572Dash, S. K., Kulkarni, M. A., Mohanty, U. C., & Prasad, K. Changes in the characteristics of rain events in India. Journal of Geophysical Research, Atmospheres, vol. 114, no. D10, 2009, pp. 1-12. Kalita, S., & Devi, M. S. Analysis of extreme rainfall events and their impacts in Mawsynram, Meghalaya, India. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, vol. 149, no. 1-2, 2022, pp. 329-342. GWR. Greatest rainfall in one month. Guinness World Records Limited, 2023, https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/worldrecords/greatest-monthly-rainfall- 10.54302/mausam.v11i1.4102Raghavan, K. Is Cherrapunji the Wettest Spot on the Earth? India Meteorological Department (IMD) Letters-4102, 1960, pp. 93- 94. Rao, Y. P. Southwest Monsoon. Meteorological Monograph Synoptic Meteorology No. 1/1976, India Meteorological Department (IMD), 1976, pp. 13-33. ESCAPE. Top wettest places on earth. 2021, https://www.escape.com.au/escape-travel/thetop-10-wettest-places-on-earth/newsstory/993eaffca1d3d5fabc0c9d73bef06b96 . 10.1029/2011rg000365Houze, R. A. Orographic effects on precipitating clouds. Reviews of Geophysics, vol. 50, no. 1, 2012, RG1001. Chu, C. M., & Lin, Y. L. Effects of Orography on the Generation and Propagation of Mesoscale Convective Systems in a TwoDimensional Conditionally Unstable Flow. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, vol. 57, no. 23, 2000, pp. 3817-3837. 10.1175/jas3924.1Kirshbaum, D. J., Bryan, G. H., Rotunno, R., & Durran, D. R. The triggering of orographic rainbands by small-scale topography. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, vol. 64, no. 5, 2007, pp. 1530-1549. 10.1002/qj.784Martin, H., Baelen, V., Joel, K., & Evelyne, R. Influence of the wind profile on the initiation of convection in mountainous terrain. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, vol. 137, 2011, pp. 224-235. 10.1175/jas3410.1Miglietta, M. M., & Rotunno, R. Simulations of moist nearly neutral flow over a ridge. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, vol. 62, no. 5, 2005, pp. 1410-1427. Stull, R. B. Meteorology Today for Scientists and Engineers. 1995. 10.3402/tellusa.v51i5.14471James, D. D., & Shapiro, M. A. Flow response to large-scale topography: The Greenland tip jet. Tellus A: Dynamic Meteorology and Oceanography, vol. 51, no. 5, 1999, pp. 728- 748. 10.3390/atmos8020039Pokharel, B., Geerts, B., Chu, X., & Bergmaier, P. Profiling Radar Observations and Numerical Simulations of a Downslope Windstorm and Rotor on the Lee of the Medicine Bow Mountains in Wyoming. Atmosphere, vol. 8, 2017, 39. 10.1175/jamc-d-16-0073.1Regmi, R. P., Kitada, T., Dudhia, J., & Maharjan, S. Large-Scale Gravity Current over the Middle Hills of the Nepal Himalaya: Implications for Aircraft Accidents. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, vol. 56, no. 2, 2017, pp. 371-390. CPW. Cloud formation and precipitation. Climate Policy Watcher, 2023, https://www.climate-policywatcher.org/snow/cloud-formation-andprecipitation.html. 10.1175/jas3555.1Houze, R. A., & Medina, S. Turbulence as a mechanism for orographic precipitation enhancement. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, vol. 62, 2005, pp. 3599-3623. 10.1016/j.atmosres.2017.10.013Lee, J. T., Ko, K. Y., Lee, D. I., You, C. H., & Liou, Y. C. Enhancement of orographic precipitation in Jeju Island during the passage of Typhoon Khanun (2012). Atmospheric Research, vol. 201, 2018, pp. 56-71. 10.1016/j.atmosres.2021.105826González, S., Bech, J., Garcia-Benadí, A., Udina, M., Codina, B., Trapero, L., et al. Vertical structure and microphysical observations of winter precipitation in an inner valley during the Cerdanya-2017 field campaign. Atmospheric Research, vol. 264, 2021, pp. 1-15. 10.1029/2004jd005047Pepin, N. C., & Seidel, D. J. A Global Comparison of Surface and Free-Air Temperatures at High Elevations. Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 110, no. D3, 2005, pp. 1-15. 10.1002/joc.4823Pérez-Zanón, N., Sigró, J., & Ashcroft, L. Temperature and Precipitation Regional Climate Series over the Central Pyrenees during 1910-2013. International Journal of Climatology, vol. 37, no. 4, 2017, pp. 1922- 1937. Basist, A., Bell, G. D., & Meentemeyer, V. Statistical Relationships between Topography and Precipitation Patterns. Journal of Climate, vol. 7, no. 10, 1994, pp. 1305-1315. 10.1080/03009480500456073Böhner, J. General climatic controls and topoclimatic variations in Central and High Asia. Boreas, vol. 35, no. 2, 2006, pp. 279- 295. 10.1038/sdata.2017.122Karger, D., Conrad, O., Böhner, J., et al. Climatologies at high resolution for the Earth's land surface areas. Scientific Data, vol. 4, 2017, 170122. 10.1007/s101130000017Lal, M., Meehl, G. A., & Arblaster, J. M. Simulation of Indian summer monsoon rainfall and its intraseasonal variability in the NCAR climate system model. Regional Environmental Change, vol. 1, no. 3-4, 2000, pp. 163-179. 10.1038/nclimate2656Elsen, P. R., & Tingley, M. W. Global mountain topography and the fate of montane species under climate change. Nature Climate Change, vol. 5, no. 8, 2015, pp. 772-776. 10.1002/joc.2007Daly, C., Conklin, D. R., & Unsworth, M. H. Local atmospheric decoupling in complex topography alters climate change impacts. International Journal of Climatology, vol. 30, no. 12, 2010, pp. 1857-1864. 10.1038/nature12976Burrows, M. T., Schoeman, D. S., Richardson, A. J., Molinos, J. G., Hoffmann, A., Buckley, L. B., et al. Geographical limits to speciesrange shifts are suggested by climate velocity. Nature, vol. 507, no. 7493, 2014, pp. 492-495. 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2015.07.052Bard, A., Renard, B., Lang, M., Giuntoli, I., Korck, J., Koboltschnig, G., et al. Trends in the hydrologic regime of Alpine rivers. Journal of Hydrology, vol. 529, 2015, pp. 1823-1837. Adler, C., Pomeroy, J., & Nitu, R. High mountain summit: Outcomes and outlook. World Meteorological Organization Bulletin, vol. 69, 2020, pp. 34-37. 10.1029/2020rg000730Pepin, N. C., Arnone, E., Gobiet, A., Haslinger, K., Kotlarski, S., Notarnicola, C., Palazzi, E., Seibert, P., Serafin, S., Schöner, W., Terzago, S., Thornton, J. M., Vuille, M., & Adler, C. Climate Changes and Their Elevational Patterns in the Mountains of the World. Reviews of Geophysics, vol. 60, no. 1, 2022, pp. 1-40. 10.1038/s41598-023-27577-5Ganguly, A., Oza, H., Padhya, V., Pandey, A., Chakra, S., & Deshpande, R. D. Extreme local recycling of moisture via wetlands and forests in North-East Indian subcontinent: a Mini Amazon. Scientific Reports, vol. 13, no. 521, 2023, pp. 13-23. 10.3390/geosciences11010018Abbate, A., Papini, M., & Longoni, L. Extreme Rainfall over Complex Terrain: An Application of the Linear Model of Orographic Precipitation to a Case Study in the Italian PreAlps. Geosciences, vol. 11, no. 1, 2021, p. 18. 10.1016/s0074-6142(10)09914-6Cotton, W. R., Bryan, G. H., & Van Den Heever, S. C. Cumulonimbus Clouds and Severe Convective Storms. Storm and Cloud Dynamics. Elsevier, 2011. 10.1175/jas-d-16-0348.1Henneberg, O., Henneberger, J., & Lohmann, U. Formation and development of orographic mixed-phase clouds. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, vol. 74, no. 11, 2017, pp. 3703-3724. 10.3390/atmos9030080Kirshbaum, D. J., Adler, B., Kalthoff, N., & Serafin, S. Moist orographic convection: Physical mechanisms and links to surfaceexchange processes. Atmosphere, vol. 9, no. 3, 2018, 80. 10.1175/jhm-d-15-0170.1Garreaud, R., Falvey, M., & Montecinos, A. Orographic precipitation in coastal southern Chile: Mean distribution, temporal variability, and linear contribution. Journal of Hydrometeorology, vol. 17, no. 4, 2016, pp. 1185-1202. 10.3402/tellusa.v67.26031Shrestha, P., Dimri, A. P., Schomburg, A., & Simmer, C. Improved Understanding of an Extreme Rainfall Event at the Himalayan Foothills - A Case Study Using COSMO. Tellus A: Dynamic Meteorology and Oceanography, vol. 67, no. 1. 2015. 10.3390/atmos11040417Knerr, I., Trachte, K., Garel, E., Huneau, F., Santoni, S., & Bendix, J. Partitioning of largescale and local-scale precipitation events by means of spatio-temporal precipitation regimes on Corsica. Atmosphere, vol. 11, no. 4, 2020, 417. Voa, T. T., Hua, L., Xueb, L., Lic, Q., & Chen, S. Urban Effects on Local Cloud Patterns. Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences Environmental Sciences, vol. 120, no. 21, 2023, pp. 1-11. 10.3390/atmos11080777Murata, F., Terao, T., Chakravarty, K., Syiemlien, H. J., & Cajee, L. Characteristics of orographic rain drop-size distribution at Cherrapunji, Northeast India. Atmosphere, vol. 11, no. 8, 2020, 777. 10.1007/s12040-023-02087-0Kalita, R., Kalita, D., & Saxena, A. Trends in extreme climate indices in Cherrapunji for the period 1979 to 2020. Journal of Earth System Science, vol. 132, no. 74, 2023, pp. 1-13. Ghosh, P., & De, A. Geology of Meghalaya: A Synthesis. Journal of the Geological Society of India, vol. 62, no. 6, 2003, pp. 581-592. Ghosh, P., & Choudhury, P. R. Geological and geomorphological development of karst in Meghalaya, India. Journal of the Geological Society of India, vol. 79, no. 5, 2012, pp. 463- 470. Sarma, K. R., & Phukan, S. Caves of Meghalaya: A Geomorphological Perspective" The Indian Geographical Journal, vol. 94, no. 1, 2019, pp. 33-46. Geological Survey of India (GSI). Geology and mineral resource of Meghalaya. Miscellaneous Publication No. 30, Part IV, v.2(1), 2009. Pareta, K., & Pareta, U. Quantitative Morphometric Analysis of a Watershed of Yamuna Basin, India Using ASTER (DEM) Data and GIS. International Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences, vol. 2, no. 1, 2011, pp. 248-269. 10.1007/s12517-021-08412-5Pareta, K., & Pareta, U. HydroGeomorphological Mapping of Rapti River Basin (India) Using ALOS PALSAR (DEM) Data, GRACE / GLDAS Data, and LANDSAT-8 Satellite Remote Sensing Data" American Journal of Geophysics, Geochemistry and Geosystems, vol. 5, no. 3, 2019, pp. 91-103. Pareta, K., & Pareta, U. Post-Earthquake Sedimentation Changed the Morphology of the Brahmaputra River. International Journal of Darshan Institute on Engineering Research and Emerging Technologies (IJDI-ERET), vol. 12, no. 1, 2023, pp. 44-53. Lyngdoh, R. B., & Sarma, L. K. Sedimentological studies of the PaleogeneNeogene rocks of Cherrapunji, Meghalaya. Journal of the Geological Society of India, vol. 85, no. 3, 2015, pp. 279-289. Ahmed, J., & Ghosh, P. Geomorphology of Meghalaya Plateau: An Overview. Springer, 2017. Sharma, D., & Mishra, S. K. Geomorphology and Drainage Pattern Analysis of Mawsynram and Cherrapunji Area, Meghalaya. Geology, Ecology, and Landscapes, vol. 1, no. 3, 2017, pp. 175-184. Ahmed, M. F., Hazarika, M. K., & Choudhury, N. Geomorphic response to rainfall in Cherrapunji area, East Khasi Hills District, Meghalaya, India. Geo-environmental Disasters, vol. 5, no. 1, 2018, p. 15. Chatterjee, S., & Singh, R. Mapping the geomorphology of Mawsynram, Meghalaya, using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Journal of the Geological Society of India, vol. 97, no. 1, 2021, pp. 13-20. Baruah, S., & Roy, A. Geomorphological characterization of Cherrapunji, Meghalaya using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Geocarto International, 2022, pp. 1-19. 10.1007/978-3-030-29684-1Dimri, A. P., Bookhagen, M., & Yasunari, T. Himalayan Weather and Climate and their Impact on the Environment. Earth and Environmental Science. Springer Nature Switzerland, 2020. Xing, N., Li, J., & Wang, L. Effect of the Early and Late Onset of Summer Monsoon over the Bay of Bengal on Asian Precipitation in May. Climate Dynamics. 2015. Singh, S., & Bhutani, R. Waterfalls in India: An Overview. Journal of Geography and Regional Planning. 2012. 10.31018/jans.v13i1.2442Deka, S. Statistical analysis of long-term rainfall trends in Cherrapunji, Meghalaya, India. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, vol. 13, no. 1, 2021, pp. 170-177. 10.1038/s41598-020-67228-7Praveen, B., Talukdar, S., Shahfahad, et al. Analyzing Trend and Forecasting of Rainfall Changes in India Using Non-parametrical and Machine Learning Approaches. Scientific Reports, vol. 10, 2020, 10342. Coulibaly, T. Y., & Managi, S. Identifying the impact of rainfall variability on conflicts at the monthly level. Scientific Reports, vol. 12, no. 1, 2022, p. 18162. 10.3390/cli11050094Nayak, S. Exploring the future rainfall characteristics over India from large ensemble global warming experiments. Climate, vol. 11, no. 5, 2023, pp. 2-14. 10.53055/icimod.1006Tse-ring, K., Sharma, E., Chettri, N., & Shrestha, A. Climate Change Vulnerability of Mountain Ecosystems in the Eastern Himalayas, Climate Change Impact and Vulnerability in the Eastern Himalayas - Synthesis Report. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, Nepal, 2010. Oldham, T. S. Geology, Meteorology, and Ethnology of Meghalaya. Appendix, Mittal Publication, 1984. Starkel, L., Singh, S., Soja, R., Froehlich, W., Syiemlieh, H., & Prokop, P. Rainfall, Runoff and Soil Erosion in the Extremely Humid Area Around Cherrapunji, India (Preliminary Observations). Geographica Polonica, vol. 75, 2002, pp. 43-65. 10.2151/jmsj.79.333Ohsawa, T., Ueda, H., Hayashi, T., Watanabe, A., & Matsumoto, J. Diurnal variations of convective activity and rainfall in tropical Asia. Journal of Meteorological Society of Japan, vol. 79, 2001, pp. 333-352. 10.1038/s41598-020-74038-4Tabari, H. Climate Change Impact on Flood and Extreme Precipitation Increases with Water Availability" Scientific Reports, vol. 10, 2020, 13768. OECD. Integrating Climate Change Adaptation into Development Co-operationPolicy Guidance. OECD, Paris, 2009. 10.1016/j.envsci.2019.07.001Fedele, G., Donatti, C. I., Harvey, C. A., Hannah, L., & Hole, D. G. Transformative adaptation to climate change for sustainable social-ecological systems. Environmental Science & Policy, vol. 101, 2019, pp. 116-125. DHI. Extreme Value Analysis (EVA), User Guide. MIKE Powered by DHI, 2017, https://manuals.mikepoweredbydhi.help/2017/ General/EVA_UserGuide.pdf. Gumbel, E. J., & Lieblein, J. Statistical Theory of Extreme Values and Some Practical Applications: A Series of Lectures. US Government Printing Office, 1954, vol. 33.